“Her Majesty’s plenipotentiary has now to announce the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself involving the following conditions: & y. n4 U b& ]+ }9 U! |公仔箱論壇
The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British crown. All just charges and duties tot the empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa.
An indemnity to the British government of six millions of dollars, on million payable at once, remainder in equal annual instalments ending in 1846.
Direct official intercourse between the countries upon equal footing.
The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten further arrangements are practicable at the new settlement."
As to other public treaties: in order to enable a public minister or other diplomatic agent to conclude and sign a treaty with the government to which he is accredited, he must be furnished with a full power, independent of his general letter of credence. Grotius, and after him Puffendorf, consider treaties and conventions, thus negotiated and signed, as binding upon the sovereign in whose name they are concluded, in the same manner as any other contract made by a duly authorised agent binds his principal according to the general rules of civil jurisprudence.7 z6 G1 K) O/ ?- z1 m; D
the sovereign is bound by the acts of his ambassadors, within the limits of his patent full-power, although the latter may have transcended or violated his secret instruction. But if the minister exceed his authority, or undertake to treat points not contained in his full-power and instructions, the sovereign is fully justified in delaying, or even refusing his ratification. ( [, o ^( l u* P* uTVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。
換言之，假如全權大臣越權商議，君主是有權拒絕公約。 ' w# a% a: }8 F E公仔箱論壇那麼，君主能夠如何拒絕呢？即使全權代表已經同意條約，只要君主能夠証明全權代表偏離了其意旨，君主是有權拒絕條約的：2 {% \* T8 Q8 Z o
before a sovereign can honourably refuse to ratify that which has been concluded in virtue of a full power, he must have strong and solid reasons, and, in particular, he must show that his minister has deviated from his instruction.% [0 p+ D' O M3 J4 f+ I
Such acts or engagements, which made without authority, or exceeding the limits of the authority under which they purport to be made, are called Sponions. These convention must be confirmed by express or tacit ratification.tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb% P2 I0 d& {( l- }/ X' |
the assent of the chambers, clothed with the forms of a legislative act, is considered essential to the ultimate validity of a treaty ceding any portion of the national territory. 4 A3 Y# F" \- a( }) v' b/ j" Q5.39.217.76
By the general principles of private jurisprudence, recognized by most, if not all, CIVILIZED COUNTRIES, a contract obtained by violence is void. Freedom of consent to the validity of every agreement, and contracts obtained under duress are void, because the general welfare of society requires that they should be so.（大寫為筆者所加） " e% s9 I& ?' `" g4 l1 f; X! W; B- MTVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。
簡而言之，當時國際法似乎已清晰厘定，包含了領土割讓的條約，需要符合兩個前提才能生效： ! |) @0 O# k; e. p7 ^* l( m. e公仔箱論壇
由得到由國家授權，執行國家意旨的全權代表簽訂；
需要得到被割讓一方的同意。
就首項前提來說，從 19 世紀初英國皇室對全權代表 (plentipotentiary) 職權範圍的劃定來看 [11] ，無論在條約至協定 (convention) 至協議 (agreement) 的簽訂上，義律的確擁有全權代理君主的權力。只有在特定的情況下，全權代表在簽署後的條約，才須得到君主最後的確認和批准，條約方能正式生效。 b' t7 B( H" X+ c+ i
本帖最後由 felicity2010 於 2016-1-27 02:15 AM 編輯 ) l* g- B h( e9 A% D% U5.39.217.76 3 {( t$ H) F- E, S+ N5.39.217.76香港是如何開埠的？（二）— 時序篇：琦善有否同意割讓香港？ # z2 `- h! ~5 h6 `TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。, i3 x% a- k1 A: I2 C* o- f+ Z" n
TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。5 T, t" C. J: M, M) |
6 ^# a) ]: a. R- _公仔箱論壇 公仔箱論壇: D( }2 [9 T2 g/ A- q6 I
1841 年 1 月 28 日，駐遠東艦隊支隊司令伯麥 (J. J. Gordon Bremer) 發出照會「議將香港等處全島地方，讓給英國主掌，已有文據在案」TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。& T6 \- x2 p" c. D9 ]
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上篇《從 19 世紀國際法和平條約談起》，談到 19 世紀國際法和平條約的基本概況和清朝欽差大臣的相關職權範圍。今篇將會從廣東談判中關於香港割讓的時序，分析琦善有否同意割讓香港。5 T) H$ s7 ?6 m- e1 H9 U( X
1841 年 1 月 26 日，英軍在升旗禮後，香港踏入開埠之路。為了使強佔的行為合理化和往後的長期貿易鋪路，必須一份聲稱雙方同意的正式法律文件 4 w) U4 S5 W, ?% @9 f5 l1841 年 1 月 20 日，義律於澳門發布一份《給英國女皇陛下臣民的通知》，這份公佈香港割讓給英國的正式文件，後來稱為「穿鼻草約」或「穿鼻協定」 (Convention of Chunpee) [1] ：公仔箱論壇6 L. A, v# I: `. t# ?9 y0 _ x1 P
Her Majesty’s plenipotentiary has now to announce the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself involving the following conditions: ! k5 T- F8 I1 ~, Btvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British crown. All just charges and duties tot the empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa.
An indemnity to the British government of six millions of dollars, on million payable at once, remainder in equal annual instalments ending in 1846.
Direct official intercourse between the countries upon equal footing.
The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten further arrangements are practicable at the new settlement.
根據草約所指，義律與琦善已達成「達成初步安排」 "the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself" 。然而，這個「達成初步安排」的文據究竟是什麼呢？在義律發佈公吿後的第六天，即1841年1月26日英軍佔領香港這天，伯麥照會大鵬協副將賴恩爵，內容如下 [2] ：TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。, w' Q; h# f) a" t
至此，什麼是義律所指「達成初步安排」的文據，還是不太清晰。tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb: A- T6 h/ b% v6 ]1 u, K
其後，在 1841 年 2 月 1 和 2 月 2 日，伯麥和義律分別發出關於香港已割讓予英國的公告，統稱為義律公告 (Elliot’s Proclamations) [3] 。5.39.217.760 D4 `& v0 Z, v( I0 l- T
2 月 1 日，伯麥和義律發表的公告：TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。1 N' G I6 o1 w2 i+ \; \, j" K
Bremer, Commander-in-chief, and Elliot, Plenipotentiary, etc., by this proclamation make know to the inhabitant of the island of Hongkong, that that island has now become part of the dominions of the Queen of England by clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts…../ U, ]6 P% Z: ^% W
2 月 2 日，義律又向中外人士和傳媒發表第二份公告：9 n3 p r3 r9 `2 a
The island of Hongkong having been ceded to the British Crown under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen, it has become necessary to provide the Government thereof, pending Her Majesty’s pleasure…… 0 m- ^& y+ \* B6 t: ?5.39.217.76
兩份公告目的在於曉喻香港居民，英國已經成為香港的新統治者。即便如此，民眾亦毋需惶恐，因為中國傳統禮儀習俗、宗教儀式、風俗習慣等個人權利不但會繼續保留，而且基於引入一種華洋分治，一島兩制的二元化法律體系 (a dual legal system) ，即華人將繼續依從中國法律及習慣，英國及其他各國人士則接受英國法的統治 [4] 。 " L" b( x* C1 K% Y9 S1 j8 f根據中國社會科學院研究員劉存寛教授，在其著作《香港史論叢》第二章<英國強佔香港島與所謂「穿鼻條約」>中指出，這兩份公告的基礎，是以 1 月 20 日的通知為依據。換言之， 2 月 1 日公告中的 "clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts" ，和義律 2 月 2 日公告中所指的 "The island of Hongkong having been ceded to the British Crown under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen" ，都是以義律在通知中的「達成初步安排」為依據。而這個有「達成」「安排」的「文據」，便是琦善在《穿鼻草約》蓋上的關防。5.39.217.766 d) @3 A: X% R W- c( x* p
香港是如何開埠？（三）巴麥尊否定草約的什麼？4 o: O$ o& J$ _6 x6 y& y
TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。0 r+ n/ h/ u- N3 f6 v0 l; i
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+ l: G% R" X$ Y. UTVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。 ! V: F) ?0 G$ `3 R3 F8 p! }) p
圖為巴麥尊) _ g9 B. ]/ v% G
TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。. c4 p/ q. h$ u
上篇《心態篇》為分析琦善有否割讓香港的最後一篇。此篇，筆者會探討，究竟為什麼巴麥尊會否定草約，而他否定的又是什麼。 / c/ W# ~* i1 J( |' d; B' S6 J2 v5.39.217.76關於《穿鼻草約》的認受性，英國外交大臣巴麥尊，即義律的頂頭上司表示懷疑。在得悉義律在 1841 年 1 月 20 日所發出關於與他和琦善就割讓香港所達成協議的公告後，巴麥尊於三個月後的 4 月 21 日給義律炒魷的致函中，否定義律的「所謂協議」 [1] ：tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb9 _1 W$ J, Y. L( m
You have obtained the Cession of Hong Kong, a barren Island with hardly a House upon it; and even this Cession as it is called, seems to me, from the conditions with which it is clogged, not to be a cession of the Sovereignty of the Island, which could only be made by the signature of the Emperor, but to be a permission to us to make a Settlement there, upon the same footing on which the Portuguese have an establishment at Macao.5.39.217.762 k/ h% j* H: ]- T; _1 M2 q
With reference to the Proclamation which has appeared in the Newspapers of this Country, issued by you to Her Majesty’s Subjects in China, in which you declare the Island of Hong Kong to be annexed forever tot the British dominions, I have to observe to you that no part of the Territory belonging to one Sovereign can be ceded and made over to another Sovereign, except by a formal Treaty, ratified by the Sovereign by whom the cession is made, and that no Subject has the power to alienate any portion of the territory of his Sovereign. Consequently, the agreement made by Keshen that Hong Kong should be ceded to the British Crown, EVEN IF THAT AGREEMENT HAS BEEN RECORDED IN THE FORMAL SHAPE OF A TREATY, would have been of NO VALUE or force until it had been ratified by The Emperor of China. Your Proclamation was therefore ENTIRELY PREMATURE, inasmuch as it does not appear that any formal Treaty for the cession of Hong Kong had been signed between you and Keshen; and that all events, it is certain that at the time when you issued your Proclamation, no such Treaty, even if signed by Keshen, had been ratified by the Emperor.（大寫為筆者所加）8 @% s& b5 ]6 ~
In ignorance of Captain Elliot’s proposals of Jan 8, 1841, it is impossible to state clearly what was agreed to on this point; but it would appear that the Island of Hong Kong had been ceded as a place of settlement; clogged, however, with a condition that all duties are to be paired there in the same manner as they have hitherto been paid at Whampoa; that is (it is presumed) that they should be assessed and collected at Hong Kong by Chinese officers. In fact, IT DOES NOT CLEARLY APPEAR THAT HONG KONG IS CEDED TO GREAT BRITAIN IN ABSOLUTE SOVEREIGNTY.（大寫為筆者所加）tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb+ v. e4 T# ?0 q* e# r1 {
5 O r# h. b. Ttvb now,tvbnow,bttvb1840 年 12 月 29 日，義律給琦善的照會，在要求「給予外洋寄居一所」後，首次提出「自治」： 8 D7 w3 f9 o3 btvb now,tvbnow,bttvb6 f2 @5 X0 u' J2 {* G2 B. B$ E c
惟求予給外洋寄居一所，俾得英人竪旗自治，如西洋人在澳門竪旗自治無異 [20] 。 2 @0 L( ]. X# C9 ~+ U! C4 N; _1 ~7 I, m4 d3 |4 y. y$ Q
先不論「予給」一詞作何解，由 1553 至 1887 年的 334 年間，澳門只是葡萄牙人向中國租借的居留地，清政府除了需要在澳門長期駐軍，亦仍然擁有領土管轄權、刑事管轄權、財政管轄權等多項權力 [21] 。在 1749 年清政府頒布以完善在澳外國人法律的《澳夷善後事宜條議》至《南京條約》生效數年後，澳門的主權仍然在清政府的手裡。雖然清政府允許議事局有一定限度的自治管理權力，但必須是以完全從屬於明清政府在澳門行使主權爲前提 [22] 。假如議事局與清政府在主權上出現衝突時，葡人政府的自治權亦需要作出讓步 [23] 。對於清政府擁有澳門的絕對主權治權而葡萄牙人只擁有使用權，這一直是兩國的共識 [24] 。因此在《南京條約》生效之前，嚴格來說葡萄牙人在賃居澳門地區的自治權並非政治獨立，而是屬於當時國際慣例的僑民自治性質，對中國政府需要完全服從。葡人政府只是屬於一個駐在澳門的一個小官員（佐堂及軍民府），它隸屬香山縣，而縣則要向廣州府報告，後者再向省當局轉達巡撫及總督 [25] 。而既然葡人政府只是屬於僑民自治性質，那麼義律有 1 月 14 日提出「讓給英國主治」中勒索香港治權的層次亦完全不同了。亦因如此，琦善雖然是代奏義律提出的「寄居」，但他此時似乎作了一個中介人的角色，默許了義律給予英國香港「自治」，而非「寄居」。5.39.217.76 X; a% j* R6 a# P; a# s
" Y; F6 Z. A' J& F0 P其實，無論是「寄居」、「暫屯」、「自治」還是「主治」，對於義律來說，香港島是要定了。但他同時亦非常清礎，對於道光帝來說，割讓是絕對不行。因此，義律認為假如能夠省去正式割讓的外形，並以一項非正式的聲明來取得清廷對佔有香港的允許，他表示這樣不但能夠符合女王陛下政府之目的和聲威，而且認為清廷會立即欣然把事情安排好。這點他在 1841 年 6 月 21 日致印度總督奧克蘭勳爵 (Lord Auckland, 1784-1849) 的信函中，寫得非常清楚 [28] ： I& C ]/ ^! t' G; l9 G
The government of China is perfectly convinced that the Island of Hong Kong will not be yielded up, and if it suited the purposes or character of Her Majesty’s Government to accept it under any such modification as would save the appearance of its formal cession, and declaration were made that we were satisfied with that extent of territorial possession, they would be well content to adjust affairs at once. / x4 R: A& c; z6 U4 J" q2 T' M" s公仔箱論壇
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