“Her Majesty’s plenipotentiary has now to announce the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself involving the following conditions: ' E" \- F$ S, d7 Mtvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British crown. All just charges and duties tot the empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa.
An indemnity to the British government of six millions of dollars, on million payable at once, remainder in equal annual instalments ending in 1846.
Direct official intercourse between the countries upon equal footing.
The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten further arrangements are practicable at the new settlement."
As to other public treaties: in order to enable a public minister or other diplomatic agent to conclude and sign a treaty with the government to which he is accredited, he must be furnished with a full power, independent of his general letter of credence. Grotius, and after him Puffendorf, consider treaties and conventions, thus negotiated and signed, as binding upon the sovereign in whose name they are concluded, in the same manner as any other contract made by a duly authorised agent binds his principal according to the general rules of civil jurisprudence.TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。; a1 S7 r, a; P1 g a9 j$ f
關於代理君主的大臣之職權,文中寫道: 3 q- e0 t ?$ T& n; ^) \ y! I: k- K* m' R
the sovereign is bound by the acts of his ambassadors, within the limits of his patent full-power, although the latter may have transcended or violated his secret instruction. But if the minister exceed his authority, or undertake to treat points not contained in his full-power and instructions, the sovereign is fully justified in delaying, or even refusing his ratification.5.39.217.766 b+ \ @$ M8 \8 v3 ^ I
換言之,假如全權大臣越權商議,君主是有權拒絕公約。TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。8 ]2 T2 z- V! l1 r, O& L
那麼,君主能夠如何拒絕呢?即使全權代表已經同意條約,只要君主能夠証明全權代表偏離了其意旨,君主是有權拒絕條約的: 7 c! A/ N# Q) | P
before a sovereign can honourably refuse to ratify that which has been concluded in virtue of a full power, he must have strong and solid reasons, and, in particular, he must show that his minister has deviated from his instruction. / M& N0 N# M& S$ p. W/ [tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
Such acts or engagements, which made without authority, or exceeding the limits of the authority under which they purport to be made, are called Sponions. These convention must be confirmed by express or tacit ratification. 2 Q( U3 ~3 s2 i r# T# x" fTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。
此外,假如條約中包含了領土割讓,還需要得到被割讓一方的同意 [9] :5.39.217.766 E& H+ ~0 _' J. p& {
the assent of the chambers, clothed with the forms of a legislative act, is considered essential to the ultimate validity of a treaty ceding any portion of the national territory.tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb9 v+ B1 W! W1 ^2 X6 C
最後,與當今國際法一樣,在第八節中,亦清楚說到,在文明國家的法學中,「恃強逼勒」的情況下所簽訂的條約,是不能生效的 [10] :公仔箱論壇. g9 H+ v \7 T: i& R
By the general principles of private jurisprudence, recognized by most, if not all, CIVILIZED COUNTRIES, a contract obtained by violence is void. Freedom of consent to the validity of every agreement, and contracts obtained under duress are void, because the general welfare of society requires that they should be so.(大寫為筆者所加)TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。% Q3 _2 g( ?% L: N- u
簡而言之,當時國際法似乎已清晰厘定,包含了領土割讓的條約,需要符合兩個前提才能生效: / @, N s% V) O* F4 k0 I) d
由得到由國家授權,執行國家意旨的全權代表簽訂;
需要得到被割讓一方的同意。
就首項前提來說,從 19 世紀初英國皇室對全權代表 (plentipotentiary) 職權範圍的劃定來看 [11] ,無論在條約至協定 (convention) 至協議 (agreement) 的簽訂上,義律的確擁有全權代理君主的權力。只有在特定的情況下,全權代表在簽署後的條約,才須得到君主最後的確認和批准,條約方能正式生效。; e1 w Q1 o. r7 l6 Y
1 M, D3 p) Y. ]( S H0 B公仔箱論壇而大清方面,身為欽差大臣琦善的職位雖較義律為高,但其職權範圍卻比義律還少。欽差代表皇帝外出辦事,整個過程要執行皇帝旨意,代表的是朝廷的意志。雖然欽差大臣被賦予特殊權力,但他們始終離不開封建集團的制約 [12] 。有鑒於此,他不僅沒有提高還價的權力,而且按《大清律例》,他也沒有與外國簽訂條約的全權 [13] 。對於任何英方的要求,他時刻都需要先請旨才能辦理。尤其在割讓領土這種有違天朝的事,是道光帝在這場中英危機之中最為關心的,因此絕對無法容許是意料中事(當然,在簽訂條約前,雙手奉上香港的卻又是道光帝本人,這又是另一回事)。故此琦善亦曾在 1841 年 2 月 14 日和 18 日兩次給道光帝的奉文中,反覆說「未奉諭旨,亦尚未敢裁給」和「以事關印文,未敢輕許(蓋印)」 [14] 。# H2 ]2 y# t% ?( e* n
本帖最後由 felicity2010 於 2016-1-27 02:15 AM 編輯 5.39.217.767 P( \2 R E& } v' U: X; u4 L
2 N+ d9 B8 ~% k香港是如何開埠的?(二)— 時序篇:琦善有否同意割讓香港? 8 a$ w4 A1 b) S+ M* |+ @. a, Mtvb now,tvbnow,bttvb 1 C) x/ q7 ~: e9 ]9 @; V3 a公仔箱論壇+ L9 S+ x1 G) B6 V1 m1 l# k
TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。; Y) N: e8 ` D' ]' D 5.39.217.76- N3 o# N/ M3 N$ r9 g
1841 年 1 月 28 日,駐遠東艦隊支隊司令伯麥 (J. J. Gordon Bremer) 發出照會「議將香港等處全島地方,讓給英國主掌,已有文據在案」公仔箱論壇3 ?7 D; a R% S# B
TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。8 K5 ~4 ~, w, i
上篇《從 19 世紀國際法和平條約談起》,談到 19 世紀國際法和平條約的基本概況和清朝欽差大臣的相關職權範圍。今篇將會從廣東談判中關於香港割讓的時序,分析琦善有否同意割讓香港。 E4 x, G6 D1 l0 C) A+ f
1841 年 1 月 26 日,英軍在升旗禮後,香港踏入開埠之路。為了使強佔的行為合理化和往後的長期貿易鋪路,必須一份聲稱雙方同意的正式法律文件; ]2 v: o3 ]$ ^1 O4 f- C* f& t
1841 年 1 月 20 日,義律於澳門發布一份《給英國女皇陛下臣民的通知》,這份公佈香港割讓給英國的正式文件,後來稱為「穿鼻草約」或「穿鼻協定」 (Convention of Chunpee) [1] :0 [8 \6 d) I' F q
Her Majesty’s plenipotentiary has now to announce the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself involving the following conditions: 7 k& X' s) v) p7 btvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British crown. All just charges and duties tot the empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa.
An indemnity to the British government of six millions of dollars, on million payable at once, remainder in equal annual instalments ending in 1846.
Direct official intercourse between the countries upon equal footing.
The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten further arrangements are practicable at the new settlement.
根據草約所指,義律與琦善已達成「達成初步安排」 "the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself" 。然而,這個「達成初步安排」的文據究竟是什麼呢?在義律發佈公吿後的第六天,即1841年1月26日英軍佔領香港這天,伯麥照會大鵬協副將賴恩爵,內容如下 [2] : 7 u3 x, ~2 {0 T公仔箱論壇
照得本國公使大臣義,與欽差大臣爵閣部堂琦,說定諸事,議將香港等處全島地方,讓給英國主掌,已在文據在案。是該島現系歸屬大英國王治下地方,應請貴官,速將該島全處所有貴國官兵撤回4 ]& u' T! L5 F
Bremer, Commander-in-chief, and Elliot, Plenipotentiary, etc., by this proclamation make know to the inhabitant of the island of Hongkong, that that island has now become part of the dominions of the Queen of England by clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts….. 6 S+ c- V z( Y1 Y2 [5 [; N公仔箱論壇
2 月 2 日,義律又向中外人士和傳媒發表第二份公告:公仔箱論壇- F# m) s7 D* b' B6 w# n4 ]
The island of Hongkong having been ceded to the British Crown under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen, it has become necessary to provide the Government thereof, pending Her Majesty’s pleasure……tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb9 {4 g* V( P7 A# {
兩份公告目的在於曉喻香港居民,英國已經成為香港的新統治者。即便如此,民眾亦毋需惶恐,因為中國傳統禮儀習俗、宗教儀式、風俗習慣等個人權利不但會繼續保留,而且基於引入一種華洋分治,一島兩制的二元化法律體系 (a dual legal system) ,即華人將繼續依從中國法律及習慣,英國及其他各國人士則接受英國法的統治 [4] 。 $ m, Z. S/ A, z& Y- O/ k( Ctvb now,tvbnow,bttvb根據中國社會科學院研究員劉存寛教授,在其著作《香港史論叢》第二章<英國強佔香港島與所謂「穿鼻條約」>中指出,這兩份公告的基礎,是以 1 月 20 日的通知為依據。換言之, 2 月 1 日公告中的 "clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts" ,和義律 2 月 2 日公告中所指的 "The island of Hongkong having been ceded to the British Crown under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen" ,都是以義律在通知中的「達成初步安排」為依據。而這個有「達成」「安排」的「文據」,便是琦善在《穿鼻草約》蓋上的關防。 0 d/ D" A3 U& }- n6 RTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。 2 B4 @( l0 R, v, F; _7 B" }0 Q m& ]5.39.217.76可是,這兩份極重要的公告中,存在三個問題:公仔箱論壇! O0 S$ f$ N. ^" c2 v7 C3 s9 }
假如公告的基礎是以通知為依據,那麼通知又什麼作依據?琦善有否就割讓香港與義律達成協議並蓋印作實?
巴麥尊否定條約;以及
義律在港權力和公告法律效力
劉存寬教授、前香港歷史博物館館長丁新豹博士、香港嶺南大學香港與華南歷史研究部名譽研究員蕭國健教授等多名學者均認為,琦善從來沒有在任何關於割讓香港的文據上蓋關防作實 [5] 。公仔箱論壇: t; Y0 W7 r; z0 a6 F
那麼,義律聲稱琦善蓋了關防的文據,究竟是怎麼一回事?筆者嘗試從時序、策略、琦善和義律心態三方面全方位分析「達成了初步安排」和「已有文據在案」可能性。tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb5 y( r. F2 w m7 k
…姑為急則治標之計,則暫示羈糜于目前,即當備剿于將來也 [20] 。 5 C' l$ Y5 y1 Y- C3 l+ b* e. ?tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
截至 2 月 16 日,琦善仍沒有蓋印,明顯地,莫說 1 月 20 日義律在澳門發出通知中「達成了初步安排」,或是 2 月 1 和 2 日兩份公告中聲稱 "clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts" 和 "under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen" 均不可能提前發生,假如義律說早已於 1 月 20 日已與琦善簽訂了《穿鼻草約》,那根本毋需此後多次發出最後通牒脅迫琦善蓋印(最後的通牒死缐是 3 月 1 日。然而,義律早已急不及待,於 2 月 23 日已揮軍再攻虎門)。並且,既已簽約,琦善亦毋需分別在 1 月 31 日擬出《酌定章程》和 2 月 11-12 日重新提出《酌擬章程底稿》四條與義律再次洽談,而律義亦毋需於 2 月 13 日向琦善提出《善定事宜》作最後商議(關於上述兩章程的細節將於下篇《心態上》詳述)。* C# h% O; S4 U3 ~% T( \, [
& J6 _7 A+ ^! F; P% q. ?8 v# o事實上,所謂「安排」,只是義律要做成既定事實,來逼使清政府作出承諾的計策。那麼義律所指的「已有文據在案」,實際上是啥什麼?5.39.217.764 A3 v% P5 v# B. _0 ?& f
義律所指的「文據」,其實是雙方就自沙角退兵、繳還定海、代奏寄居香港及釋放拘留人士等協議的磋商和照會文件 [22] 。然而這些協議都沒有簽字作實,亦沒有蓋上關防。在 2 月 1 日義律發布公告的同日,義律給琦善的照會中便說道 [23] : , _: G; B' C. v; o5 @; N5.39.217.76
倘貴大臣爵閣部堂,能將業將分別酌議說定諸事,曾有文據之各條款,列作盟約,俾兩國制體,均無所傷之處。5.39.217.76& L) a' q; [8 s# M3 S. t
You have obtained the Cession of Hong Kong, a barren Island with hardly a House upon it; and even this Cession as it is called, seems to me, from the conditions with which it is clogged, not to be a cession of the Sovereignty of the Island, which could only be made by the signature of the Emperor, but to be a permission to us to make a Settlement there, upon the same footing on which the Portuguese have an establishment at Macao. / X0 D) r3 e4 J H- E, {) t; Z- `9 F& KTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。
With reference to the Proclamation which has appeared in the Newspapers of this Country, issued by you to Her Majesty’s Subjects in China, in which you declare the Island of Hong Kong to be annexed forever tot the British dominions, I have to observe to you that no part of the Territory belonging to one Sovereign can be ceded and made over to another Sovereign, except by a formal Treaty, ratified by the Sovereign by whom the cession is made, and that no Subject has the power to alienate any portion of the territory of his Sovereign. Consequently, the agreement made by Keshen that Hong Kong should be ceded to the British Crown, EVEN IF THAT AGREEMENT HAS BEEN RECORDED IN THE FORMAL SHAPE OF A TREATY, would have been of NO VALUE or force until it had been ratified by The Emperor of China. Your Proclamation was therefore ENTIRELY PREMATURE, inasmuch as it does not appear that any formal Treaty for the cession of Hong Kong had been signed between you and Keshen; and that all events, it is certain that at the time when you issued your Proclamation, no such Treaty, even if signed by Keshen, had been ratified by the Emperor.(大寫為筆者所加) 2 n9 j1 Z0 T; K! o7 y; G' b" O公仔箱論壇
In ignorance of Captain Elliot’s proposals of Jan 8, 1841, it is impossible to state clearly what was agreed to on this point; but it would appear that the Island of Hong Kong had been ceded as a place of settlement; clogged, however, with a condition that all duties are to be paired there in the same manner as they have hitherto been paid at Whampoa; that is (it is presumed) that they should be assessed and collected at Hong Kong by Chinese officers. In fact, IT DOES NOT CLEARLY APPEAR THAT HONG KONG IS CEDED TO GREAT BRITAIN IN ABSOLUTE SOVEREIGNTY.(大寫為筆者所加)3 R& A5 g* M, }. c+ c* Q: {/ {* j
F.O., London, April 21, 1841, Lord Palmerston to captain Elliot, R.N, 《International relation of the Chinese empire》, H.B. Morse, p.642. , ~ i( C8 Z* u. Y1 STVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。另有中文譯文: + `! W4 Y5 y: h$ M0 ^; U1 e! H5.39.217.76「你已經爭得香港的割讓,一處連一所房子都難找到的荒島;甚至這一種所謂的割讓,據我看,由於受種種條件的牽制,也不是一種非經皇帝簽署才能辦到的島嶼主權的割讓,而只是我們在那裏建一居留區的一種許可,其地位是同葡萄牙人在澳門所有的那一種制度一樣。」 8 D2 K7 @5 m9 s0 J4 p" \; oTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。《中華帝國對外關係史》,第一卷,馬士著,第 728 頁。
F.O., London, May 14, 1841, Lord Palmerston to captain Elliot, R.N, 《International relation of the Chinese empire》, H.B. Morse, p.647. $ f7 v. R8 h( X O5.39.217.76另有中文譯文:5.39.217.76 I# v! o3 f! G. F' {9 s# H0 s
「除非是通過一項由進行割讓的君主所批准的正式條約,沒有一部份屬於一位君主的領土,能割讓予和轉讓給另一位君主,並且沒有一個臣民有權把他君主的領土任何部分割讓與人。因此,琦善所作的把香港割讓予英國君主的協議,縱使該恊議已經寫成一個條約的正式形式,但在中國皇帝予以批准之前,也不會有任何價值或效力的。在你和琦善之間,對於割讓香港一節,并不象是簽訂了任何正式條約,而已無論如何,我們可斷言在你發布通告的當時,這種條約即使經過琦善簽字,也絕不是已經由皇帝批准的,因此你的通告全然是為時太早。」tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb# W: A; t. U2 m" X/ z+ p/ k! C: [
《中華帝國對外關係史》,第一卷,馬士著,第 735 頁。
STATEMENT, B. DEMANDS 4, 《International relation of the Chinese empire》, H.B. Morse, p. 646.
" v# w4 k. X8 f7 I$ ^$ ^) W/ D公仔箱論壇下篇《心態篇》,筆者將從琦善和義律對於「暫屯」、「寄居」、「自治」和「主治」香港之意,分析兩人尤其琦善對香港主權問題的深層看法。tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb" j, v9 I; H( t% n' ^0 @" U
+ J- u* S y7 a' L
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《善定事宜》,是義律於1841年2月13日給琦善照會中的開價。實際上,《善定事宜》比《巴麥尊子爵致大清皇帝欽命宰相書》的要求低了很多(見《時序篇》註 18 。最後雙方沒有簽署):/ s( T% V; I" t( x: f
一、英人前往廣州貿易,按舊例領取牌照,准許自由出入。中國政府保証其生命財產安全。查無違禁品的英船主,無須具結。 ' w ?$ t2 W2 U二、兩國官員公文平等往來。商人業務由商人自辦,并按照舊例向中國官憲具文。 W1 t$ A/ Q6 f/ s% m+ T三、中國皇帝批准將香港一島給予英國國主,並准許中國船隻去香港通商。* ]% A% Z9 J) M W# N7 T
四、在華英人犯罪,由英、中兩國官員共同審理,在香港服刑。在香港的中國人犯罪,引渡給中國,由中、英兩個官員共同審理。$ t, J. T/ D. j
五、英船按舊例駛入黃埔。英商交納行商費用以道光二十一年正月初一日(1841 年 1 月 23 日)為准,不得再增。兩國通商章程、稅率等項,由中國行商3人和英國商人 3 人共同討論擬定,由廣東官府批准實施。中國行商3年內還清欠款, 3 年內取消行商制度。1 H3 m- V: g7 `8 `: k$ I% n+ p9 T
六、今後英商擕帶違禁品入境,貨物沒收,人犯或由中國驅逐,或交英方處理。英商如帶違禁貨物聽官究辦。公仔箱論壇4 h) ^1 U; H1 c' t3 o# Z
七、條約由英全權代表和清欽差大臣蓋印,然後由英政府批准,再由清朝欽命大學士蓋印。 ; p3 U) Y0 R4 O# E0 v" xtvb now,tvbnow,bttvb《天朝的崩潰》,茅海建著,第 216-217 頁。
The government of China is perfectly convinced that the Island of Hong Kong will not be yielded up, and if it suited the purposes or character of Her Majesty’s Government to accept it under any such modification as would save the appearance of its formal cession, and declaration were made that we were satisfied with that extent of territorial possession, they would be well content to adjust affairs at once. + r$ w. q( |; ?' ^9 `