“Her Majesty’s plenipotentiary has now to announce the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself involving the following conditions:5.39.217.76 S+ t# l0 n3 d# [+ \' d3 ~
The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British crown. All just charges and duties tot the empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa.
An indemnity to the British government of six millions of dollars, on million payable at once, remainder in equal annual instalments ending in 1846.
Direct official intercourse between the countries upon equal footing.
The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten further arrangements are practicable at the new settlement."
9 C3 c5 }9 s0 _: [5 q+ R8 b
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5 p+ i6 w1 ]5 @tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
亞洲電視節目《解密百年香港 – 哪裡是香港》,簡述《穿鼻草約》的合法性。
5 c5 A5 W7 U1 J$ }tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb由17世紀開始,英國為了壟㫁貿易,一般都會透過獲得海外領土,來擴張盎格魯撒克遜在當地的商貿權力 [5] 。按此經驗來看,從義律和後來接任的砵甸乍銳意割讓香港之目的可見,假如英國成功取得香港作為海外領土,香港便成為了其在華鴉片和其他貿易的據點。因此,割讓香港的其中一個重要原因,便是要將香港開辟為自由港,成為對內通市的通商口岸,而草約便是使「開辟」合理的法律工具。 3 c6 [7 r2 P: ?9 P' Ttvb now,tvbnow,bttvb , d/ k" Z* S0 X$ M! t ^可是,當時《穿鼻草約》沒有簽訂和承認,香港割讓只是建立在英軍的實際佔領和升旗禮之上,因此草約亦不能成為使「開辟」商埠合理的法律工具。對於類似國際間的強佔行為, 19 世紀初的國際法能夠產生約束力嗎?國際法又是如何詮釋條約效力的? $ {* c: I9 c$ utvb now,tvbnow,bttvb, b3 z5 t. \* W; M# [9 Q/ a
現今泛指國際法這一詞,在 19 世紀後半葉一般稱為歐洲公法 (droit public de I’Europe, European public law) 。當時歐洲公法的特徵,主要都是圍繞著保障歐洲國際社會利益,例如歐洲中心主義、擴張主義等的法律秩序。歐洲認為公法是「文明國家之間的法律」,世界亦因而給劃分為歐洲文明國家、中國等半文明國家,和野蠻國家。為了要將侵略世界非文明國家的擴張行為合理化,歐洲公法乃成為一種帝國主義的法律工具 [6] 。 % N# c8 e! ~. B- E1 r; j$ V+ GTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。 + e1 H/ c. |/ H8 X, x) R( ^ 2 e5 P' j8 u- g7 ~& }8 L為証明自己是公正無私的文明國家,並要迫使不文明國家遵循他們的價值觀和法理規範來行事,以維護其特權和利益,在 18 世紀初,國際法著作便成為這種擴張主義的白手套。而國際法作者的國藉,便顯得尤其關鍵 – 列強爭相出版國際法。而當中的焦點,便是那個國家更有資格代表普世價值。因此, 19 世紀最著名的國際法著作,1836年分別在倫敦和費城出版的《Elements of International Law》(中譯為《國際法原理》),能夠在 1864 年由美國傳教士丁韙良 (W. A. P. Martin, 1827-1916) 翻譯為漢語版《萬國公法》,美國政府對翻譯的推動,包括時任中國海關稅務司司長赫德 (Sir Robert Hart, 1835-1911) 的支持,實在不可或缺 [7] 。因此,當時國際法的約束力,較為適用於列強間的秩序維繫和利益分配,多於對國際間的無限擴張。tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb) t" `( F& J( [% W8 A1 o. R* c- e v
公仔箱論壇, D4 z. J/ `, I$ t4 ~
在過去一個多世紀,世界各地在國際法和平條約的領土割讓實例中,一般劃分為因征服而割讓 (subjugation) ,和因條約 (treaty) 買賣而割讓兩種,而兩者均必須以條約為法律依據。那麼,條約基於什麼條件才產生法律效力?《國際法原理》第二章第五節中指出,有效的條約必須首先由君主賦予全權的代表,在達成協議之後,雙方代表簽署才能正式生效 [8] : ( `$ `. O% t/ N3 m7 I* ^5.39.217.76
As to other public treaties: in order to enable a public minister or other diplomatic agent to conclude and sign a treaty with the government to which he is accredited, he must be furnished with a full power, independent of his general letter of credence. Grotius, and after him Puffendorf, consider treaties and conventions, thus negotiated and signed, as binding upon the sovereign in whose name they are concluded, in the same manner as any other contract made by a duly authorised agent binds his principal according to the general rules of civil jurisprudence. , J* Z) u0 M+ p/ n7 Z1 [5.39.217.76
關於代理君主的大臣之職權,文中寫道:' h3 Q# \1 z/ K: e
the sovereign is bound by the acts of his ambassadors, within the limits of his patent full-power, although the latter may have transcended or violated his secret instruction. But if the minister exceed his authority, or undertake to treat points not contained in his full-power and instructions, the sovereign is fully justified in delaying, or even refusing his ratification.TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。. O5 z' `. Y# a( F( R
before a sovereign can honourably refuse to ratify that which has been concluded in virtue of a full power, he must have strong and solid reasons, and, in particular, he must show that his minister has deviated from his instruction.公仔箱論壇6 G8 v o8 F9 a {5 r9 A- ]8 B
另外,《國際法原理》第四節又指出,假如全權代表擅自立約,在沒有得到君主准許或授權的情況下作出超越其權力的約定或承諾,最終仍必須得到(君主)的准許:TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。 f& F# t7 g2 i
Such acts or engagements, which made without authority, or exceeding the limits of the authority under which they purport to be made, are called Sponions. These convention must be confirmed by express or tacit ratification. - s9 `& H# q) `+ A" t
the assent of the chambers, clothed with the forms of a legislative act, is considered essential to the ultimate validity of a treaty ceding any portion of the national territory. U! l: j% a" g3 W- n; V# _5.39.217.76
最後,與當今國際法一樣,在第八節中,亦清楚說到,在文明國家的法學中,「恃強逼勒」的情況下所簽訂的條約,是不能生效的 [10] : ' h$ p0 \' K0 g6 F& e0 b S
By the general principles of private jurisprudence, recognized by most, if not all, CIVILIZED COUNTRIES, a contract obtained by violence is void. Freedom of consent to the validity of every agreement, and contracts obtained under duress are void, because the general welfare of society requires that they should be so.(大寫為筆者所加) 6 z% @1 V1 F- B: a$ |5.39.217.76
簡而言之,當時國際法似乎已清晰厘定,包含了領土割讓的條約,需要符合兩個前提才能生效:. E4 z! m$ k: i
Her Majesty’s plenipotentiary has now to announce the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself involving the following conditions: ; J( _- ]& {& ?) v
The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong to the British crown. All just charges and duties tot the empire upon the commerce carried on there to be paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa.
An indemnity to the British government of six millions of dollars, on million payable at once, remainder in equal annual instalments ending in 1846.
Direct official intercourse between the countries upon equal footing.
The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten further arrangements are practicable at the new settlement.
根據草約所指,義律與琦善已達成「達成初步安排」 "the conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the imperial commissioner and himself" 。然而,這個「達成初步安排」的文據究竟是什麼呢?在義律發佈公吿後的第六天,即1841年1月26日英軍佔領香港這天,伯麥照會大鵬協副將賴恩爵,內容如下 [2] :公仔箱論壇" {7 r) S9 U# S- e9 n& I! t
照得本國公使大臣義,與欽差大臣爵閣部堂琦,說定諸事,議將香港等處全島地方,讓給英國主掌,已在文據在案。是該島現系歸屬大英國王治下地方,應請貴官,速將該島全處所有貴國官兵撤回- j& b4 N4 T: O# v
Bremer, Commander-in-chief, and Elliot, Plenipotentiary, etc., by this proclamation make know to the inhabitant of the island of Hongkong, that that island has now become part of the dominions of the Queen of England by clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts….. ' }& a* K; A4 Y0 c Z/ OTVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。
2 月 2 日,義律又向中外人士和傳媒發表第二份公告: # v/ y9 C. h- w5.39.217.76
The island of Hongkong having been ceded to the British Crown under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen, it has become necessary to provide the Government thereof, pending Her Majesty’s pleasure…… - H; z+ ^) h' a8 l公仔箱論壇
兩份公告目的在於曉喻香港居民,英國已經成為香港的新統治者。即便如此,民眾亦毋需惶恐,因為中國傳統禮儀習俗、宗教儀式、風俗習慣等個人權利不但會繼續保留,而且基於引入一種華洋分治,一島兩制的二元化法律體系 (a dual legal system) ,即華人將繼續依從中國法律及習慣,英國及其他各國人士則接受英國法的統治 [4] 。 D8 o& m, I" x, R! |% O& `, Z公仔箱論壇根據中國社會科學院研究員劉存寛教授,在其著作《香港史論叢》第二章<英國強佔香港島與所謂「穿鼻條約」>中指出,這兩份公告的基礎,是以 1 月 20 日的通知為依據。換言之, 2 月 1 日公告中的 "clear public agreement between the High Officers of the Celestial and British Courts" ,和義律 2 月 2 日公告中所指的 "The island of Hongkong having been ceded to the British Crown under the seal of the Imperial Minister and High Commissioner Keshen" ,都是以義律在通知中的「達成初步安排」為依據。而這個有「達成」「安排」的「文據」,便是琦善在《穿鼻草約》蓋上的關防。5.39.217.76. l4 P4 l6 J6 H2 T$ Q
首先,我們嘗試詮釋琦善復照的背景和內容。此照 (F. O. 682/858) 是琦蓋給義律請求放人的回覆。而復照中所指的「諸事」,究竟所謂何事?查中英雙方在1841年 1 月中旬的一番文書往來後,得知兩人的確就英方交還定海、沙角大角、中方代奏請給香港寄居,以及上述釋放二人的協議,因此已經「說定」 [11] 。就義律 14 日的照會來說,「將以沙角、大角二處送還」的代價是「將尖沙咀、香港各等處讓給英國主治」,既然琦善就「將以沙角、大角二處送還」為代價並以「止擇一處地方寄寓泊船」代奏道光帝,雙方即就此達成協議,那麼琦善便需履行承諾,為此口頭協議「代奏」道光帝,即琦善在 1 月 15 日的復照中「(惟尖沙咀與香港)代為籌計盡善」 [12] 。此時,琦善還說由於「諸事皆定」,亦不想因此一事而延誤談判。按邏輯說,只有「將尖沙咀、香港各等處讓給英國主治」,才符合作為退還二角的交換條件。可是,義律卻視「現在諸事既經說定」中琦善所承諾的「代奏」,偷梁換柱為承諾「讓給英國主治」。 1 月 20 日,義律復照琦善 [13] :tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb. T# _4 h" B( G: Z; J- m z
照得貴大臣爵閣部堂二十六日來文,均已閲悉。現在事事既已說定,本公使大臣全賴貴大臣爵閣部堂誠信,知必如議,於二十一年正月初旬以內,就行開港貿易,茲備公文,咨會佰統師,請即讓還沙角、大角等處。所有兵船軍師,撤退九龍所近之香港島地駐剳,並請將日前所獲貴國舟師等船,一俟貴大臣爵閣部堂派弁。」tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb ?. H( K( W# f4 a) S
You have obtained the Cession of Hong Kong, a barren Island with hardly a House upon it; and even this Cession as it is called, seems to me, from the conditions with which it is clogged, not to be a cession of the Sovereignty of the Island, which could only be made by the signature of the Emperor, but to be a permission to us to make a Settlement there, upon the same footing on which the Portuguese have an establishment at Macao. 6 N9 C' D$ L3 k( ~6 A" `9 _" j% ^4 ktvb now,tvbnow,bttvb
With reference to the Proclamation which has appeared in the Newspapers of this Country, issued by you to Her Majesty’s Subjects in China, in which you declare the Island of Hong Kong to be annexed forever tot the British dominions, I have to observe to you that no part of the Territory belonging to one Sovereign can be ceded and made over to another Sovereign, except by a formal Treaty, ratified by the Sovereign by whom the cession is made, and that no Subject has the power to alienate any portion of the territory of his Sovereign. Consequently, the agreement made by Keshen that Hong Kong should be ceded to the British Crown, EVEN IF THAT AGREEMENT HAS BEEN RECORDED IN THE FORMAL SHAPE OF A TREATY, would have been of NO VALUE or force until it had been ratified by The Emperor of China. Your Proclamation was therefore ENTIRELY PREMATURE, inasmuch as it does not appear that any formal Treaty for the cession of Hong Kong had been signed between you and Keshen; and that all events, it is certain that at the time when you issued your Proclamation, no such Treaty, even if signed by Keshen, had been ratified by the Emperor.(大寫為筆者所加) 9 q( `6 j4 a! ?9 E/ m+ `; J- x
In ignorance of Captain Elliot’s proposals of Jan 8, 1841, it is impossible to state clearly what was agreed to on this point; but it would appear that the Island of Hong Kong had been ceded as a place of settlement; clogged, however, with a condition that all duties are to be paired there in the same manner as they have hitherto been paid at Whampoa; that is (it is presumed) that they should be assessed and collected at Hong Kong by Chinese officers. In fact, IT DOES NOT CLEARLY APPEAR THAT HONG KONG IS CEDED TO GREAT BRITAIN IN ABSOLUTE SOVEREIGNTY.(大寫為筆者所加)5.39.217.76" x2 k7 }; ], s8 d. M" N0 e
由於琦善在草約上的答允根本是子虛烏有,況且義律亦沒有得到道光帝的批准,根據當時英國奉行的國際法準則,一個沒有得到對方認可的條約是不具國際約束力的。這點早在 1840 年 2 月 20 日英國發給清廷正式文件《巴麥尊子爵致大清皇帝欽命宰相書》中第一號訓令裏的第十款,已清楚列明條約必須在規定期限內由雙方君主批准 [4] 。此外,義律在 1841 年 2 月 13 日向琦善提出《善定事宜》的照會中,於末段亦向琦善表明要雙方君主蓋印為據 [5] :+ F& O, g8 g* a) u
The government of China is perfectly convinced that the Island of Hong Kong will not be yielded up, and if it suited the purposes or character of Her Majesty’s Government to accept it under any such modification as would save the appearance of its formal cession, and declaration were made that we were satisfied with that extent of territorial possession, they would be well content to adjust affairs at once.5.39.217.76. H1 _: @; d3 f* f- e* U- y
《酌定章程》,是琦善在 1841 年 1 月 31 日向義律提交對其《善定事宜》的最高還價方案(最後雙方沒有簽署): + c' R. j5 o0 A# F4 a! r) J5.39.217.76一、准許英人在廣東通商和英人在香港地方一處寄居;TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。6 S% B( n. F b. j) k2 ~9 D. B
二、此後英人來廣東貿易,悉按舊例辦理; $ k w( Q# q8 ^- W* p! Etvb now,tvbnow,bttvb三、英船夾帶鴉片和違禁品、或漏稅走私者,貨即沒官,人即治罪; ( P t. b0 b1 e Y U四、英人今後對此處理不得有異議。 . H( ^' i; \6 U3 S8 b" ]* }《天朝的崩潰》,茅海建著,第 216 頁。
《鴉片戰爭史》,蕭致治主編,第 388 頁。
《善定事宜》,是義律於 2 月 13 日給琦善照會中的開價。實際上,《善定事宜》比《巴麥尊子爵致大清皇帝欽命宰相書》的要求低了很多(見《時序篇》註 18 。最後雙方同樣沒有簽署): + O M/ ?! x# I5 X" e, b一、英人前往廣州貿易,按舊例領取牌照,准許自由出入。中國政府保証其生命財產安全。查無違禁品的英船主,無須具結。公仔箱論壇. m: o9 a& K. Q& s4 \! R
二、兩國官員公文平等往來。商人業務由商人自辦,並按照舊例向中國官憲具文。 6 B w$ o* z" m' H0 rtvb now,tvbnow,bttvb三、中國皇帝批准將香港一島給予英國國主,並准許中國船隻去香港通商。 4 p- ?! N) G+ D" M+ x四、在華英人犯罪,由英、中兩國官員共同審理,在香港服刑。在香港的中國人犯罪,引渡給中國,由中、英兩個官員共同審理。, e7 _2 i$ W: _! L3 {
五、英船按舊例駛入黃埔。英商交納行商費用以道光二十一年正月初一日(1841 年 1 月 23 日)為准,不得再增。兩國通商章程、稅率等項,由中國行商 3 人和英國商人 3 人共同討論擬定,由廣東官府批准實施。中國行商3年內還清欠款, 3 年內取消行商制度。 8 M) i+ U1 k1 R k六、今後英商擕帶違禁品入境,貨物沒收,人犯或由中國驅逐,或交英方處理。英商如帶違禁貨物聽官究辦。TVBNOW 含有熱門話題,最新最快電視,軟體,遊戲,電影,動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。: ]% {+ W+ \: G
七、條約由英全權代表和清欽差大臣蓋印,然後由英政府批准,再由清朝欽命大學士蓋印。《天朝的崩潰》,茅海建著,第 216-217 頁。