本帖最後由 vandas 於 2012-5-27 05:20 AM 編輯
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From steel beams to American icon: Golden Gate Bridge celebrates 75 years as an engineering masterpiece
8 Y$ V: C; B/ K5 IBy Associated Press and Beth Stebner
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7 s2 U( o" t/ Y0 D- T/ Z0 B6 h1 Ftvb now,tvbnow,bttvbIt was built as the country was emerging from the Great Depression, and grew into an icon of America.5.39.217.76/ J. H9 U% t. L; R/ N; T! Q% w
4 K4 H% R' n& L1 u3 w8 e0 OIt was also heralded as an engineering marvel when it opened in 1937. It was the world's longest suspension span and had been built across a strait that critics said was too treacherous to be bridged.5.39.217.76+ }) D* A$ g5 m& e2 [# m9 H
, _# _& N$ Z' h' W7 V6 }But as the iconic Golden Gate Bridge approaches its 75th anniversary over Memorial Day weekend, the generations of engineers who have overseen it all these years say keeping it up and open has been something of a marvel unto itself.
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Dream becomes reality: The idea for a bridge across the Golden Gate strait, where San Francisco Bay meets the Pacific Ocean, was championed by the engineer Joseph Strauss in the 1920s
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/ X F g- _5 _- j' wUnder construction: The bridge was completed in 1937 and became the largest suspension bridge ever built; workers, right, carried heavy iron beams in 1936
5 n s3 P; R9 n) U7 I1 ~% V# Q8 U公仔箱論壇$ \6 Y8 a' w$ g' o3 m. p/ U. q
4 E1 z8 Y |0 W& n% d9 e( T公仔箱論壇Such great heights: Painter Don Dulac, the oldest on the painting crew, scales dizzying heights top of the North Tower, paint brush in hand
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Crews had to install a bracing system after high winds lashed and twisted the span in the 1950s, raising fears it would collapse. Years later, they had to replace vertical cables when they were found to have corroded in the bridge's damp, foggy climate, potentially destabilizing the span.tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb& T. Y- e0 L, B5 q5 x' |
- U4 z0 t' v7 x# ^9 }. w5 V0 STVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。The bridge, which rises majestically above a Civil War-era fort on the San Francisco side and arches across to the Marin County headlands on the north side, is currently in the midst of a seismic upgrade that has seen many of its key structures replaced or modified.
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+ D$ ?! ?4 H+ {Plans for a moveable barrier to separate north and southbound traffic and a net system to prevent suicides are also moving forward.
. Q ?* U e. l8 c$ c& d4 S5 v( h'When (one of the bridge's designers) made his final speech during opening day ceremonies in 1937, he said, `I present to you a bridge that will last forever,'' said Daniel Mohn, the bridge's former chief engineer, who co-authored a book about the span. 'What he should have said is, `I present to you a bridge that will last forever if properly maintained.'公仔箱論壇* V, {' I$ T g
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The idea for a bridge across the Golden Gate strait, where San Francisco Bay meets the Pacific Ocean, was championed by the engineer Joseph Strauss in the 1920s.
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Different kind of catwalk: Men worked at breakneck heights, sending pieces down a ramp system
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Engineering marvel: On completion, the steel bridge was the longest suspension bridge main span in the world and cost approximately $35 million
! H# \3 h- z3 E" f. v1 Ttvb now,tvbnow,bttvbTVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。7 r* P7 o* d( q
% }$ d' k5 \2 P1 p F2 r! i: ~3 LTVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。Darker side: With a drop of 245 feet to the water below, the bridge has become the biggest suicide site in the world
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5 Z6 y. ~; T: n+ N2 FSlowly but surely: By 1935, construction was well underway and workers began to lay further foundation to the bridge's towers
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Impossible dream: The bridge had to be light enough to hang from its own cables, but still strong enough to withstand the strait's fierce winds and the possibility of earthquakes - some said it was impossible" y, P# g( M) t& b/ Q
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3 @* O6 z6 p8 Q5.39.217.76Carefully constructed: San Francisco, California, USA --- Original caption: Workers begin attaching cables to the bridge, pictured in October 1935; Eleven men died during construction from 1933 to 1937
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1 T1 V& ]( }+ a公仔箱論壇Strauss's original design, submitted to San Francisco city officials in 1921, called for a hybrid cantilever-suspension bridge. The idea for a full-suspension span - the design that was ultimately built - came later.
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3 P7 l% u& j! o$ d* W: U# O+ mAt a little more than three-fourths of a mile in length, the Golden Gate Bridge would become the world's longest suspension span.
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It had to be light enough to hang from its own cables, but still strong enough to withstand the strait's fierce winds and the possibility of earthquakes. Some said it was impossible.
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1 h9 \6 w& |3 z$ b公仔箱論壇Engineers also had to calculate all the potential forces on the bridge without the help of computers.公仔箱論壇* L# I5 z; N: e7 ` n, l( I W
4 x# w: x! K( ]8 O9 W1 Z- i'In those days, you had (notebooks) and a number two pencil and you wrote it out, did all the math at your desk,' said Kevin Starr, a history professor at the University of Southern California, who has also written about the bridge.TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。7 N, m" {1 [6 i+ O# a! I2 M; Y
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Eleven men died during construction from 1933 to 1937 - ten of them when scaffolding fell through a safety net that had been set up to protect workers.4 m; i7 l: q! u: W% J2 R
Y) {/ w) \8 u* {% M" U9 B公仔箱論壇The conditions were difficult, cold, foggy and windy, and workers who helped construct supports for the south tower had to contend with dangerous tides.
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Looking on: A young family gazed out into the bay looking at the nearly-completed bridge; it opened to the public on May 27, 1937TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。3 X1 @$ C( P: [
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0 F' ]2 C3 S# m7 A5.39.217.76Soaring journey: Amelia Earhart began her record-breaking hop over the Golden Gate Bridge on 17 March 1937
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  TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。* Y% z! d# r2 i+ Y' |) Q9 {
Before and after: The bridge pictured in 1935, left, and on its opening day, left, on May 27, 1937. To celebrate its opening to the public, military biplanes flew between the towers of the Golden Gate Bridge as pedestrians walked across the bridge's span
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But it was the wind that would continue to vex engineers years after the bridge's completion. In 1951, it was closed for several hours when wind gusts approached 70 mph and caused the bridge to flutter.公仔箱論壇" E& h! A2 ~' K4 n( o$ \
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It was twisting so badly, Mr Mohn recalled during a recent phone interview, that the light standards at the centre of the span were striking the main cables.
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s+ r- }1 y7 T* p5.39.217.76'It sure almost destroyed the Golden Gate Bridge,' he said. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Washington - a suspension bridge whose designer also worked on the Golden Gate - had twisted and snapped in about 40 mph winds a little more than a decade earlier. That 1940 collapse was captured on film.
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% X. q) ?, J, L4 q0 Z& Y: wTVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。Although the Golden Gate Bridge had stiffening trusses that made it less susceptible to wind, it did sustain damage, Mr Mohn said.
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; Y6 O" _" {2 f. W) C5.39.217.76Officials decided to add lateral bracing that made the trusses more stable and reduced the chances of the bridge going into a potentially catastrophic twisting motion.5.39.217.764 I8 P: g w/ Q$ A: C% o/ J
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4 @1 ~4 H* B4 }1 A0 s9 \1 }! s公仔箱論壇As it stands: The bridge remains one of the most iconic parts of San Francisco, but the damp, foggy air has also kept its painters and engineers busy5.39.217.76# z% C \5 m$ ]& _6 i
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In the mists: The top towers of the bridge peek out from clouds and mist, with the signature red paint offering a stark contrast to the white fog
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- S0 o5 m$ R1 f5.39.217.76Nestled in: An August moon appears to rest on the top of the south tower of the Golden Gate Bridge, with the city's iconic skyline as background公仔箱論壇% V2 j. G7 Z r2 L4 ^; v0 a( H
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^ E0 t6 `: x+ b6 |tvb now,tvbnow,bttvbAnticipation: On Sunday, May 27, 2012 it will be 75 years since the famous red bridge was opened, linking the northern point of the San Francisco peninsula to Marin County across the opening of the San Francisco bay
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# S( Q0 ?- W3 K) [5.39.217.76The bridge would be able to withstand winds of 70 mph today although the goal is to eventually increase its tolerance to 100 mph, according to Ewa Bauer, the bridge's current chief engineer.
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5 O* t& `5 b m- ]) U' o1 W2 _4 t2 z5.39.217.76The wind is not the only element to take its toll on the span. The damp, foggy air has also kept its painters and engineers busy.
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'You couldn't have put the bridge in a more corrosive atmosphere than in the middle of the Golden Gate with that salt fog coming in,' Mr Mohn said.公仔箱論壇. r4 ]# O% v0 G! I
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Engineers discovered in the 1970s that the bridge's suspender ropes - the vertical cables that connect the deck to the main cables - had corroded, some so badly that they could be picked apart with a pocket knife.5.39.217.76 f: e/ y' O4 f0 d/ D6 R
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The problem in part, Mr Mohn said, was that bridge maintenance had been neglected for many years, particularly during World War II. A design flaw also hastened corrosion.
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$ S: R1 Z9 A+ i0 V9 P. oAll of the cables were replaced in the mid-1970s.
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There was another scare on the bridge during its 50th anniversary in 1987 when an estimated 300,000 pedestrians gathered on the span, which was closed to vehicle traffic.
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- V! T4 O; ~" oThe weight of the crowd flattened out the arch of the bridge deck and caused some revelers to suffer motion sickness as the bridge swayed.
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+ |4 c/ q3 _! q. P, B: C# BAlthough the bridge supported its heaviest load in 50 years that day, Mohn would later conclude the weight and movement had not exceeded its design capacity. Today, among the engineers' most pressing concerns is the potential effect of a major earthquake.tvb now,tvbnow,bttvb, U6 t7 _! r. }3 e: {6 y
3 Z! S6 F p1 W& dTVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。
% b) x" X# Y* t/ ?5 wBay area: Surfers ride the waves near the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco as the 75th anniversary on May 27th approaches.
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Vermillion: A view of the South Tower and the freshly-painted cables, left, and right, iron worker Kerry Davis, who has worked on the Golden Gate Bridge for the past 28 years, standing at the entrance to the South Tower2 t3 Y* ?$ E# C& L
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: h0 ?1 L1 u( p: E9 b- C! Z5.39.217.76Expansive: A seagull flies near past the 1.7-mile bridge on May 24% V: y' L) I$ E) s
' ^5 I' v, ?! @( q; C& xTVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, which occurred during a live broadcast of the World Series, caused two 50-foot sections of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge to collapse.
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The Golden Gate Bridge was not damaged. But the quake still spurred bridge officials to undertake a massive retrofit of the span - a $660 million project that began in 1997 and is still underway.5.39.217.76& y. z, s% o$ h1 k5 t4 F
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Bridge pylons have been reinforced with steel and towers under the bridge's two approaches were replaced, all while keeping the bridge open and its appearance unchanged. Retrofitting the suspension span is the project's final phase although experts say its flexibility makes it less vulnerable in an earthquake.0 O6 u% ]/ H3 `+ B$ g, s! z
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'If I knew when an earthquake was coming, I'd get to the suspension span of the Bay Bridge or the Golden Gate Bridge,' said Abolhassan Astaneh-Asl, an engineering professor at the University of California, Berkeley who studied the Golden Gate Bridge after Loma Prieta.'They are safest places to be.'
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The goal is to withstand an 8.1-magnitude earthquake when the retrofit is completed years from now.
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3 u: J+ i! v+ d7 R: i# w公仔箱論壇The bridge, like other infrastructure, has a lifespan. But Bauer and Mohn say with proper maintenance, the Golden Gate Bridge will endure. The retrofit project alone will buy the span another 150 years, Bauer estimated.TVBNOW 含有熱門話題，最新最快電視，軟體，遊戲，電影，動漫及日常生活及興趣交流等資訊。! t: ~& b4 i3 v' T, ~; t
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'I believe the bridge was built to absolute great standards of workmanship,' she said on a recent morning at a vista point overlooking the span. 'What we are doing right now is repairing...and you can truly do it indefinitely.'0 q: x9 T" w( i! }) U. @
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